Welcome to Enlightening Pathways and Reflections! In today’s episode, we’re diving deep into tawḥīd, the Islamic doctrine of the oneness of God. This concept is central to Islamic belief, but its interpretations vary across different theological and philosophical traditions. We’ll explore how tawḥīd is understood by schools like the Muʿtazilīs, Ashʿarīs, Māturīdīs, Ḥanbalīs, the Ismailis as well as the perspectives of great Islamic philosophers such as Ibn Sīnā and delve into the mystical interpretations of figures like Ibn ʿArabī. Stay tuned for an insightful discussion!

Simplified Timeline of Tawḥīd in Islamic Thought

Foundations of Tawḥīd

• Early Islam: Tawḥīd (divine oneness) is affirmed through the shahāda and daily rituals.

8th-9th Centuries: Rise of Kalām

• Abū Ḥanīfa (d. 767) lays groundwork for the Māturīdī school.

• Muʿtazilī theologians like Abū al-Hudhayl (d. 841) argue God’s attributes are identical to His Essence.

• ʿAbd Allāh b. Kullāb (d. 850) introduces the formula: “not identical to God, not other than Him.”

9th-10th Centuries: Competing Theological Schools

• Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī (d. 936) founds the Ashʿarī school, emphasizing distinct divine attributes.

• Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī (d. 944) establishes Māturīdī theology, affirming eternal divine attributes.

• Ismāʿīlī thinker Abū Yaʿqūb al-Sijistānī (d. c. 971) promotes an apophatic (negative) theology.

10th-11th Centuries: Consolidation & Philosophy

• The Ḥanbalī (Atharī) school rejects kalām, emphasizing scripture.

• Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) (d. 1037) develops falsafa, defining God as the Necessary Existence.

• Ismāʿīlī philosopher al-Kirmānī (d. c. 1020) argues for God’s absolute independence.

11th-12th Centuries: Theological Debates

• Al-Juwaynī (d. 1085) introduces allegorical interpretation (taʾwīl) for divine attributes.

• Al-Ghazālī (d. 1111) supports the “not identical/not other” concept of divine attributes.

• Ḥanbalī scholar Ibn Qudāma (d. 1223) rejects kalām and promotes tafwīḍ (consigning meaning to God).

13th-14th Centuries: Mysticism & Regional Expressions

• Ibn ʿArabī (d. 1240) teaches waḥdat al-wujūd (unity of existence), seeing creation as God’s manifestation.

• His followers, including Ṣadr al-Dīn al-Qūnawī and al-Kashānī, systematize his ideas.

• In India, Ismāʿīlī pīrs like Pīr Ḥasan Kabīr al-Dīn and Pīr Ṣadr al-Dīn integrate tawḥīd with Indic traditions through gināns.